Pen Surface Temperature as a Predictor of Daily Water Intake and Tympanic Temperature in Steers Finished in Feedlots.

Adequate estimation of water demand in cattle production feed yards is of high importance, especially due to reduced water availability because of changes in rain precipitation patterns and amounts. The pen surface in feed yards receives and reflects solar radiation, affecting along with other factors the microclimate to which cattle are exposed. This study aimed to describe the relationship between the pen surface temperature with the daily water intake and the tympanic temperature of finishing steers. Climate variables, including solar radiation, air temperature, relative humidity, and wind speed plus pen surface temperature and soil temperature at 10.2 cm depth were recorded. Data were collected from a weather station located in the feedlot in Concord NE, whereas daily water intake was estimated from a set of experimental pens sharing a waterer in two adjacent pens. Simple and polynomial linear regressions were assessed from data collected in different experiments conducted from 2003 to 2006. Two models to predict daily water intake were developed for finishing steers using the pen surface temperature as the predictor variable. The first one included data for the period May-October (overall model) and the second one for the summer period (June-August). The best fit for the overall model was a quadratic fit (r2 = 0.86), whereas the best-fit model for the summer model was the cubic (r2 = 0.72). Subsequently, both models were validated with data from an independent experiment conducted in the summer of 2007 in the same facilities. Both models tended to slightly overestimate daily water intake when they were validated (14.6% and 12.6%, respectively). For tympanic temperature, the best-fit model was linear, explaining 76% of the observed variability. When the dataset was split into night-time and daytime the best-fit model for the night period was a quadratic one and a linear one for the daytime, both improving the explanation of the variability observed. In conclusion, pen surface temperature can be used to predict both daily water intake and tympanic temperature in feedlot steers without access to shade.

Evaluation of Four Thermal Comfort Indices and Their Relationship with Physiological Variables in Feedlot Cattle.

Climatic data from different years and experiments conducted in Nebraska were used to estimate four comfort thermal indices and to predict the risk of heat stress and its relationship with pen surface temperature (PST). These included the temperature-humidity index (THI), the adjusted THI (THIadj), the heat load index (HLI), and THIPST using pen surface temperature instead of air temperature. Respiration rates (RR), tympanic temperatures (TT), and panting scores (PS) were also collected in each year and from each location. During 2007, mean values of soil temperature, PST, outgoing shortwave radiation, and TT were greater than in 2008 (p < 0.011). However, HLI, relative humidity, and incoming and outgoing long-wave radiation were greater during 2008 (p < 0.012). The TT was positively correlated with THIPST and THIadj (0.75 and 0.70, respectively), whereas RR had a moderate correlation with THI, THIadj, and HLI (0.32, 0.27, and 0.34, respectively; p < 0.001). Thermal comfort indices showed a positive correlation with TT, especially the THIPST. These relationships vary with location. However, all of the thermal indices showed weak relationships with the observed RR. This would confirm the different roles that TT and RR have as indicators of heat stress. The THIPST was the best index for predicting TT across years.

Narratives of Indigenous University Students in Bogotá about the Indigenous Human Life Process, 2021 / Narrativas de estudiantes universitarios indígenas en Bogotá (Colombia) sobre el proceso vital humano indígena, 2021 / Narrativas de estudantes universitários indígenas em Bogotá sobre o processo de vida humana indígena, 2021

Introduction: In Colombia, a majority of the indigenous peoples are at risk of physical and cultural extinc-tion. In addition, the lack of studies related to analyzing their own narratives about the issues surround-ing indigenous health is telling. This absence results in difficulties of analysis and intervention culturally appropriate for indigenous problems. Thus, the objective was to unveil the narratives about the human life process in the indigenous peoples of Colombia constructed by indigenous migrant university students in Bogotá. Materials and methods: This research is qualitative, with a narrative approach, and is based on the hermeneutical­interpretive paradigm. Eight undergraduate students in Bogotá, between the ages of 18 and 40, belonging to the Kamentsá, Pastos, Pijao, Kankuamo, Nasa, and Misak peoples, were inter-viewed. Results: Life in harmony, anchored to the territory of origin, was identified as the key organizing concept for all understandings of health, illness, death, and care. Conclusions: Designing appropriate healthcare interventions aimed at indigenous people requires considering their own understandings of the human life process in an intrinsic relationship with the integral harmony between person, commu-nity, and territory

Introducción: En Colombia, la mayoría de los pueblos indígenas se encuentran en riesgo de extinción física y cultural. Además, existe una deficiencia de estudios relacionados con el análisis de narrativas propias sobre los asuntos que rodean la salud indígena. Tal ausencia deriva en las dificultades de análisis e intervención culturalmente apropiada a problemas indígenas. Así, se planteó como objetivo develar las narrativas sobre el proceso vital humano en pueblos indígenas de Colombia construidas por estudiantes universitarios indígenas migrantes en Bogotá. Materiales y métodos: esta investigación es cualitativa con enfoque narrativo y está basada en el paradigma hermenéutico-interpretativo. Se entrevistó a ocho estudiantes que cursan el pregrado en Bogotá, con edades entre 18 y 40 años, pertenecientes a los pueblos kamentsá, pastos, pijao, kankuamo, nasa y misak. Resultados: se identificó la vida en armonía, anclada al territorio de origen, como el concepto clave organizador de todas las comprensiones relativas a la salud, la enfermedad, la muerte y el cuidado. Conclusiones: el diseño de intervenciones sanitarias apropiadas dirigidas a indígenas requiere considerar sus propias comprensiones sobre el proceso vital humano, en relación intrínseca con la armonía integral entre persona, comunidad y territorio.

Introdução: na Colômbia, a maioria dos povos indígenas está em risco de extinção física e cultural. Além disso, faltam estudos relacionados à análise de narrativas sobre o processo de Vida Humana Indígena que partem de suas próprias perspectivas. Essa ausência é evidenciada nas dificuldades de analisar e implementar intervenções culturalmente adequadas aos problemas das comunidades indígenas. Desta forma, o objetivo é desvelar as narrativas sobre o processo vital humano nos povos indígenas da Colômbia construídas por estudantes universitários indígenas migrantes em Bogotá. Materiais e méto-dos: a pesquisa é qualitativa com abordagem narrativa e fundamenta-se no paradigma hermenêutico-in-terpretativo. Para isso, foram realizadas entrevistas com oito estudantes indígenas universitários, com idades entre 18 e 40 anos, pertencentes aos povos indígenas kamentsá, pastos, pijao, kankuamo, nasa e misak. Resultados: a convivência harmoniosa, ancorada nos territórios de origem, foi identificada como o conceito organizador-chave de todas as compreensões de saúde, doença, morte e cuidado. Conclusões:o desenho de intervenções de saúde adequadas dirigidas aos povos indígenas requer a consideração de seus próprios entendimentos sobre o processo da vida humana, em uma relação intrínseca com a harmonia integral entre pessoa, comunidade e território

Use of the Comprehensive Climate Index to estimate heat stress response of grazing dairy cows in a temperate climate region.

The aim of the study was to assess the effect of the summer thermal environment on physiological responses, behaviour, milk production and its composition on grazing dairy cows in a temperate climate region, according to the stage of lactation. Twenty-nine Holstein Friesian multiparous cows were randomly selected and divided into two groups, according to the days in milk, as mid-lactation (99 to 170 d in milk, n = 15) and late lactation (225 to 311 d in milk, n = 14). The comprehensive climate index (CCI) was used to classify the hour of each day as thermoneutral or heat stress, considering a threshold value of CCI of 20°C. Data were collected for 16 d (summer 2017) and analysed as a completely randomized 2 × 2 factorial arrangement with repeated measurements over time. Vaginal temperature increased with CCI ≥ 20°C. Respiration rates were dependent on the thermal condition, regardless of days in milk. There was an interaction between the time of day and the CCI category for activity and rumination. Grazing activity decreased by 17.6% but lying down, standing, and shaded animals increased by 1.6, 9.8, and 6.3% respectively when CCI ≥ 20°C. Over 80% of cows presented a panting score ≥1. However, milk production and composition (fat, protein, and lactose concentrations as well as somatic cell count) were not affected by the thermal condition, although there was a numerical (non-significant) decrease in afternoon milk protein concentration on days with CCI ≥ 20°C, while urea in milk increased. In conclusion, thermal condition challenged grazing dairy cows' behaviour and physiology independent of the stage of lactation but had little or no effect on milk production.

Infectious and non-infectious diseases burden among Haitian immigrants in Chile: a cross-sectional study.

Chile has become a popular destination for migrants from South America and the Caribbean (low- and middle-income countries migration). Close to 200.000 Haitian migrants have arrived in Chile. Infectious and non-infectious disease burden among the Haitian adult population living in Chile is unknown. This study aimed to acquire the basic health information (selected transmissible and non-transmissible conditions) of the Haitian adult population living in Chile. A cross-sectional survey was performed, inviting Haitian-born residents in Chile older than 18 years old. Common conditions and risk factors for disease were assessed, as well as selected transmissible conditions (HIV, HBV, and HCV). 498 participants (60.4% female) from 10 communities in two regions of Chile were surveyed. Most subjects had never smoked (91.5%), and 80% drank less than one alcohol unit per month. The mean BMI was 25.6, with 45% of participants having a normal BMI (20-25). Hypertension was present in 31.5% (33% in the 25-44 age group). Prevalence of HIV was 2.4% (95 CI 1.3-4.2%), hepatitis B (HBsAg positive) was 3.4% (95 CI 2.1-5.5%), and hepatitis C was 0% (95 CI 0.0-0.9%). Quality of life showed a significant prevalence of depression and anxiety markers, particularly in those arriving in Chile less than 1 year ago. Low prevalence of obesity, diabetes, smoking, and drinking and estimated cardiovascular risk were found. Nonetheless, hypertension at a younger age, disproportionately higher prevalence of HIV and HBV infection and frequent markers of anxiety and depression were also found. Public policies for detecting and treating hypertension, HIV, and HBV screening, offering HBV vaccination, and organizing mental health programs for Haitian immigrants, are urgently needed.

Effect of Two Nutritional Strategies to Balance Energy and Protein Supply in Fattening Heifers on Performance, Ruminal Metabolism, and Carcass Characteristics.

Latin America is an important contributor to the worldwide beef business, but in general, there are limited studies considering strategies to reduce nitrogen contamination in their production systems. The study's goal was to assess the effect of two nutritional strategies to balance energy and protein supply in fattening heifers on performance, ruminal metabolism, and carcass characteristics. A total of 24 crossbred heifers (initial body weight 'BW 'of 372 ± 36 kg) were used to create two blocks (based on live weight) of two pens each, that were equipped with individual feeders. Within each block, half of the animals were assigned to a diet based on tabular Crude Protein (CP) requirements denominated Crude Protein Diet 'CPD' but without a ruminal degradable protein balance. The other half received a diet denominated Metabolizable Protein Diet 'MPD', formulated with the metabolizable protein system, balanced for the ruminal degradable protein. Both diets had the same ingredients and as well as similar synchrony indexes (0.80 and 0.83, respectively). For nitrogen concentration in feces and urine as well as microbial crude protein synthesis, a total of 12 heifers (three per pen) were randomly selected to collect samples. The dataset was analyzed as a randomized complete block design with a 5% significance. No diet × time interaction was observed for Average Daily Gain 'ADG' (p = 0.89), but there was an effect of the time on ADG (p ≤ 0.001). No differences were observed neither for final weight, dry matter intake 'DMI', and feed conversion rate (p > 0.05). Heifers fed with CPD showed greater cold carcass weight (p = 0.041), but without differences in ribeye area, backfat thickness, pH, dressing %, and marbling (p > 0.05). Differences between diets were observed for the in vitro parameters as well as for the Total Volatile Fatty Acids 'VFA' and NH3 (p < 0.05). Total N concentrations (urine + feces) of heifers fed with MDP was lower than in those fed with the CPD (p < 0.01), but no differences were observed in microbial protein, purine derivatives, and creatinine (p > 0.05). We conclude that the combination of synchrony and the metabolizable protein system achieve greater efficiency in the use of nitrogen, without negatively affecting animals' performance or the quality of the carcass.

Effect of High Potency Growth Implants on Average Daily Gain of Grass-Fattened Steers.

High potency growth promoter implants (HGPs) are widely used under feedlot conditions but there are few reports under grazing conditions. The study's goal was to assess the effect of HGPs on the average daily gain of steers fattened in pastures. A total of 57 crossbreed steers (Hereford × Angus)-initial body weight = 356.65 kg ± 5.04 (SEM)-were randomly allocated to one of three groups: Control without HGP (n = 19), Synovex group (n = 17), and Revalor group (n = 21). The fattening period was 67 days using paddocks of Lolium perenne L. and Trifolium repens L. Body weight was recorded three times in the period. The data were analyzed using an analysis of covariance with a level of significance of 5%. The average daily gain (ADG) (1.55 ± 0.07 and 1.48 ± 0.09 kg/d) and the total weight gain (103.4 ± 4.9 and 99.2 ± 5.8 kg) were similar for Revalor and Synovex, respectively (p > 0.05). Moreover, HGP groups showed higher ADG and total weight gain (p < 0.01) than the control group (ADG = 0.93 ± 0.08 kg/d and a total weight gain of 62.2 ± 5.2 kg). Final body weights were 527.8 ± 8.5 kg and 512.2 ± 9.9 kg for Revalor and Synovex, respectively; and 479.9 ± 10.1 kg for Control. In conclusion, grazing-finished steers showed better performance when high potency HGPs were used, improving the ADG and final live body weight, generating a marginal income that justifies the use of the technology under grazing conditions.

Evaluation of sources of variation on in vitro fermentation kinetics of feedstuffs in a gas production system.

The aim of this study was to evaluate the effect of different sources of variation in gas production technique on the in vitro gas production kinetics of feedstuffs. Triplicates of commercial concentrate, grass silage, grass hay and grass pasture were incubated in three experiments: experiment 1 assessed two agitation methods; experiment 2 evaluated different rumen inocula (pooled or different donor cows for each incubation run); and experiment 3 used Goering-Van Soest or Mould buffers for media preparation. Gas production data were fitted into the Michaelis-Menten model and then subjected to analysis of variance. Gas production (GP) at 48 h and asymptote gas production (A) were lower when bottles were continuously under horizontal movement. Time to produce half and 75% of A, and A were affected by rumen inocula, while buffer type affected time to produce half and 25% of A and GP. No interactions between substrates and sources of variation were observed, suggesting that the effects of substrates on GP parameters were not modified. It is concluded that comparison of numerical data from in vitro experiments that follow different protocols must be done carefully. However, the ranking of different substrates is more robust and less affected by the sources of variation.

Evolution of gremlin 2 in cetartiodactyl mammals: gene loss coincides with lack of upper jaw incisors in ruminants.

Understanding the processes that give rise to genomic variability in extant species is an active area of research within evolutionary biology. With the availability of whole genome sequences, it is possible to quantify different forms of variability such as variation in gene copy number, which has been described as an important source of genetic variability and in consequence of phenotypic variability. Most of the research on this topic has been focused on understanding the biological significance of gene duplication, and less attention has been given to the evolutionary role of gene loss. Gremlin 2 is a member of the DAN gene family and plays a significant role in tooth development by blocking the ligand-signaling pathway of BMP2 and BMP4. The goal of this study was to investigate the evolutionary history of gremlin 2 in cetartiodactyl mammals, a group that possesses highly divergent teeth morphology. Results from our analyses indicate that gremlin 2 has experienced a mixture of gene loss, gene duplication, and rate acceleration. Although the last common ancestor of cetartiodactyls possessed a single gene copy, pigs and camels are the only cetartiodactyl groups that have retained gremlin 2. According to the phyletic distribution of this gene and synteny analyses, we propose that gremlin 2 was lost in the common ancestor of ruminants and cetaceans between 56.3 and 63.5 million years ago as a product of a chromosomal rearrangement. Our analyses also indicate that the rate of evolution of gremlin 2 has been accelerated in the two groups that have retained this gene. Additionally, the lack of this gene could explain the high diversity of teeth among cetartiodactyl mammals; specifically, the presence of this gene could act as a biological constraint. Thus, our results support the notions that gene loss is a way to increase phenotypic diversity and that gremlin 2 is a dispensable gene, at least in cetartiodactyl mammals.

¿Son los ácidos grasos de la carne y la leche bovina nocivos para la salud de las personas? / Are fatty acids from beef and milk from cattle harmful for human health?

Nutritional recommendations of the past 35-40 years have promoted the reduction of fat intake, calories and particularly saturated fatty acids (SFA), emphasizing lower consumption of red meat and high fat dairy products, because of its association with cardiovascular diseases (CVD), being in turn replaced by sugars and refined carbohydrates. There is consensus that the SFA concentration in blood plasma, particularly palmitic acid, are associated with an increased risk of CVD and heart attacks. However, there is no evidence of causality between CVD and consumption of SFA, raising reasonable doubts about the relation ship between consumption of SFA with those present in blood plasma, as well as with the CVD risk. This review presents scientific evidence that demonstrates that the inclusion of fats in the diet, specifically animal fats from ruminants, provide important health benefits for people, especially when accompanied by a reduction in the consumption of carbohydrates. It is also proposed that ruminant products and their fatty acids contribute with beneficial saturated fats for people's health, especially those from pastoral production systems such as vaccenic, rumenic and linolenic acids.

Las recomendaciones nutricionales de los últimos 40 años han promovido la reducción del consumo grasas, calorías y particularmente ácidos grasos saturados (AGS), enfatizando un menor consumo de carnes rojas y productos lácteos altos en materia grasa debido a su asociación con enfermedades cardiovasculares (ECV), siendo reemplazados por azúcares y carbohidratos refinados. Existe consenso en que la concentración de AGS en el plasma sanguíneo, particularmente ácido palmítico, se asocia con un mayor riesgo de ECV y ataques al corazón. Sin embargo, no hay evidencias de causalidad entre ECV y consumo de AGS, planteando dudas razonables sobre la existencia de una relación entre el consumo de AGS con los presentes en el plasma sanguíneo, y con el riesgo de ECV. La presente revisión plantea evidencia científica que demuestra que la incorporación de grasas en la dieta, específicamente grasas de origen animal, aporta importantes beneficios para la salud de las personas, en especial cuando se acompaña de una reducción en el consumo de carbohidratos. Asimismo, se plantea que los productos de rumiantes y sus grasas contribuyen con ácidos grasos beneficiosos para la salud de las personas, en especial aquellos provenientes de sistemas de producción pastoriles como los ácidos vaccénico, ruménico y linolénico.

Age-Dependent Effects of Haptoglobin Deletion in Neurobehavioral and Anatomical Outcomes Following Traumatic Brain Injury.

Cerebral hemorrhages are common features of traumatic brain injury (TBI) and their presence is associated with chronic disabilities. Recent clinical and experimental evidence suggests that haptoglobin (Hp), an endogenous hemoglobin-binding protein most abundant in blood plasma, is involved in the intrinsic molecular defensive mechanism, though its role in TBI is poorly understood. The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of Hp deletion on the anatomical and behavioral outcomes in the controlled cortical impact model using wildtype (WT) C57BL/6 mice and genetically modified mice lacking the Hp gene (Hp(-∕-)) in two age cohorts [2-4 mo-old (young adult) and 7-8 mo-old (older adult)]. The data obtained suggest age-dependent significant effects on behavioral and anatomical TBI outcomes and recovery from injury. Moreover, in the adult cohort, neurological deficits in Hp(-∕-) mice at 24 h were significantly improved compared to WT, whereas there were no significant differences in brain pathology between these genotypes. In contrast, in the older adult cohort, Hp(-∕-) mice had significantly larger lesion volumes compared to WT, but neurological deficits were not significantly different. Immunohistochemistry for ionized calcium-binding adapter molecule 1 (Iba1) and glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP) revealed significant differences in microglial and astrocytic reactivity between Hp(-∕-) and WT in selected brain regions of the adult but not the older adult-aged cohort. In conclusion, the data obtained in the study provide clarification on the age-dependent aspects of the intrinsic defensive mechanisms involving Hp that might be involved in complex pathways differentially affecting acute brain trauma outcomes.

Scattering of a surface plasmon polariton by a localized dielectric surface defect.

On the basis of a rigorous, nonperturbative, purely numerical solution of the corresponding reduced Rayleigh equation for the scattering amplitudes we have studied the scattering of a surface plasmon polariton by a two dimensional dielectric defect on a planar metal surface. The profile of the defect is assumed to be an arbitrary single-valued function of the coordinates in the plane of the metal surface, and to be differentiable with respect to those coordinates. When the defect is circularly symmetric and the dependence of the scattering amplitudes on the azimuthal angle is expressed by a rotational expansion, the reduced Rayleigh equation is transformed into a pair of one-dimensional integral equations for each value of the rotational quantum number. This approach is applied to a defect in the form of an isotropic Gaussian function. The differential cross sections for the scattering of the incident surface plasmon polariton into volume electromagnetic waves in the vacuum above the surface and into other surface plasmon polaritons are calculated, as well as the intensity of the field near the surface. These results differ significantly from the corresponding results for a metallic defect on a metallic substrate.

Dynamic stability of crack fronts: out-of-plane corrugations.

The dynamics and stability of brittle cracks are not yet fully understood. Here we use the Willis-Movchan 3D linear perturbation formalism [J. Mech. Phys. Solids 45, 591 (1997)] to study the out-of-plane stability of planar crack fronts in the framework of linear elastic fracture mechanics. We discuss a minimal scenario in which linearly unstable crack front corrugations might emerge above a critical front propagation speed. We calculate this speed as a function of Poisson's ratio and show that corrugations propagate along the crack front at nearly the Rayleigh wave speed. Finally, we hypothesize about a possible relation between such corrugations and the long-standing problem of crack branching.

Precios y acceso a medicamentos / Prices and access to drugs

En tiempos de libre comercio, los precios de los medicamentos juegan un papel importante desde el punto de vista de acceso a los mismos, sobre todo de sectores socio-economicamente deprimidos. En este sentido realizar un análisis de la reclación de los precios entre paises desarrollados y en vias de desarrollo.

El abc de la omc

Esta publicación contiene datos acerca de qué es el acuerdo general sobre aranceles aduaneros y comercio (GATT), qué es la organización mundial del comercio(OMC), cómo funciona, cuáles son las concesiones especiales para los países pobres, porqué Bolivia debería ser miembro de la OMC y si ésta es una amenaza u oportunidad para Bolivia.

Medicamentos, embarazo y la clasificación de la Food and Drug Administration- FDA / Drugs, pregnancy and the FDA clasification

Recordemos que toda sustancia puede ser veneno todo depende de la dosis, es el este sentido que los medicamentos no son la excepción, por lo que el extremar todo tipo de cuidados en la adminsitración de medicamentos, es imprescindible, mucho más si hablamos de una etapa tan importante como es el embarazo. Este es un problema que se da a todo nivel, comenzando de la persona embarazada que se automedica, hasta llegar al personal de salud, que no toma encuenta la existencia de un posible embarazo y que el más "simple"de los fármacos puede afectar en el desarrollo del embrión o feto de acuerdo al caso, por lo que una evaluación del riesgo-beneficio es primordial antes de recomendar un medicamento. En este sentido la FDA (Food an Drug Administration) realizó una clasificación de los medicamentos de acuerdo a su potencial teratógenico, razon por la cual resulta importante tomar en cuenta la misma para conocer cuales son drogas que se ueden tomar durante el embarazo y cuales no.

Contaminación de fuentes de agua en Camiri, Villamontes y Alto Ipaguatzú / Water sources contamination in Camiri, Villamontes and Alto Ipaguazú, Bolivia

El presente artículo muestra los hallazgos de un estudio llevado a cabo en Camirí, Villamontes y Alto Ipaguatzú, en el marco del Proyecto denominado "Hacia el control del uso de Antimicrobianos y la Resistencia Bacteriana en los países debajos ingresos". Cuyo principal objetivo es desarrollr un marco conceptual que describa el uso de antimicrobianos y la ressitencia a los mismos en comunidades remotas rurales de Bolivia y Perú, para estrategias de intervención incluyendo los servicios de salud locales destinados al público en general, evaluando el uso de antimicrobianos y las tendencias de resistencia bacteriana.

Nutricion infantil: realidades y distrosiones / Infant nutrition: realites and distortions

La promoción y la comercialización de los mal llamados substitutos de la leche materna, por parte de la poderosa industria transnacional de alimentos para bebés e infantes incluyendo la industria nacional, está incitando y estimulando el consumo de estos productos, aún a riesgo de exponer vidas de indefensoss infantes y niños, a través de promoción y estrategias de mercadeo agresivas. Cuanto mas prematuramente los lactantes son destetados y privados del mejor alimento "la leche materna" suministrado por sus madres, más se contribuye al saludable negocio que arriesga la apropiada nutrición infantil. el presente artículo analiza la situación de la comercialización y promoxión de los mal llamados substitutos de la leche materna en el país, a través de un monitorio realizado sobre el cumplimiento del Código Internacional, las Resoluciones subsecuentes de la Asamblea Mundial de la Salud y la reglamentación nacional al respecto. El estudio se realizo en 8 departamentos de Bolivia, en el marco de un estudio internacional

Reacciones adversas: medicamentos y hematología / Adverse reactions: drugs and hematology

El tratamiento de las enfermedades requiere de un uso riguroso y adecuado de fármacos cuando éstos sean realmente necesartios y apropiados a las necesidades clínicas del paciente. El tratamiento puede ser farmacológico o no farmacológico. En caso de optar por un tratamiento farmacológico, este debe ser prescrito en una dosificación correcta, en la presentación correcta, debe respondera requerimientos individuales, por un período adecuado, en tiempo apropiado, administrado correctamente y al costo más conveniente para el paciente y para la comunidad. Es, fundamental que el medicamento sea de eficacia comprabada, efectivo, de calidad verificada, con amplio margen de seguridad y beneficio aceptable. Asímismo se debe considerar, no sólo la disponibilidad de los medicamentos prescritos, sino su accesibilidad y las condiciones de sistemas de abastecimiento. El presente estudio examina algunos de estos importantes aspectos, tomando como caso estudio, algunos medicamentos, frecuentemente utilizados y sus cosecuencias y efectos colaterales en el area de hematología